Differences between verbal and non verbal communication

This essay will attempt to distinguish verbal from non verbal communication and will use appropriate examples to show how non verbal communication is used in traditional society and then will give a conclusion. Firstly it will define the key concepts such as communication and society.

The concept society is defined as an organized group of people with common ties, operating through its interacting system of institutions established to ensure nurture, defense and survival for its members (Ezewu, 1983). In other words society refers to a congregation were human beings interact with one another in order to maintain a continued existence. This means that society embraces a group of people who live together and work together and also share similar interests and able to support each other.

The concept communication can be defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding (Anderson, 2007).It is important to understand that communication is derived from the Latin word "Communis", meaning to share. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the sender and feedback is critical for effective communication between parties. It requires a sender, message and an intended recipient for it to be complete. It can occur across vast distances in time and space. It requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. In other words it is the process of exchanging information, beliefs and feelings among people and it may be oral, written, or nonverbal. Information may travel up, down, or horizontally (Knapp and Hall, 2007).

It is important to understand that communication occurs in different ways such as the verbal and non verbal communication. These are important to convey meaning or interact between the sender and the receiver. It enables them to be able to communicate effectively various meanings using symbols and signs that are common to both the sender and the recipient. However, verbal communication differs from non verbal communication in several ways. For example, Verbal communication includes rate, volume, pitch as well as articulation and pronunciation but non verbal communication includes those important but unspoken signals that individuals exhibit, specifically such as carriage or posture, appearance (Bull, 1987).This means that verbal communication differs from non verbal in the sense that it is concerned with producing sounds or speaking in order to communicate or convey messages. Non verbal is mostly concerned with the use of signs or unspoken words in order to communicate effectively.

 Argyle (1988:16) explained that “verbal communication is different from non verbal communication in the sense that it is mainly talking while non verbal communication can be gestures like shrugging shoulders, nodding head, raising eyebrows, pointing fingers”. This means that non verbal communication is mainly concerned with the use of the body to communicate things and with verbal communication there is the use of voice to communicate things to other people.  In other words the other one is verbal and the other one is not.

It is important to understand that verbal communication as speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page.

 Hanna (1987:6) adds that “nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless but mostly visual messages between people”. This means that it enables messages to be communicated through gestures and touch, by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. The messages can also be communicated through material exponential such meaning, objects or artifacts. For example clothing, hairstyles, architecture or color (Hargie and Dickson, 2004). However, much of the study of nonverbal communication focuses on the face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas environmental conditions where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction. Unlike verbal communication which is mostly concerned with the communication done using the mouth and non verbal requires the use of the eyes in order to convey messages or to get messages.

It is also important to note that verbal communication differs from nonverbal communication in the sense that the latter involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source speaker and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the recipient (Remland, 2009).Basically it is sending and receiving messages in a variety of ways without the use of verbal codes such as words. In other words non verbal communication is both intentional and unintentional. 

The verbal communication also differs from the non verbal communication in that it is not multi function as the latter. This means it does not have several functions as compared to non verbal communication. For example it can be used to repeat the verbal message such as the sender pointing in a direction while stating directions. This means that one can communicate verbally and strengthen the meaning through non verbal actions to enable the recipient understand the point in cases where he or she has not understood the verbal message.

Gudykunst (1988:7) explains that “non verbal can also be used to accent a verbal message in the sense that verbal tones enable the indication of the actual meaning of the specific words produced to the receiver”. This means that the tone of the voice is non verbal code which has the ability to determine the real meaning of a particular verbal message. For example people who talk with the loud voice or shouting when talking their message may not be taken serious by the recipient unlike one who is talking with the low tone. The other function of non verbal communication is that it able to complement the verbal message but may also contradict it. For example a nod may reinforce a positive message and a wink may contradict a stated positive message (Brehove, 2011).The other function of the non verbal communication is that it is able to substitute the verbal messages especially in cases where it is blocked by environmental noise or any other interruptions such as the gestures finger to lips to indicate need for quiet and facial expressions such as a nod instead of a verbal yes. These functions prove that non verbal communication differs from the verbal communication because it is multifunction or purpose.

The verbal communication also can be distinguished from non verbal communication in the sense that non-verbal cues can occur whether person is speaking or not speak but verbal cannot take place if the person is quiet or silent for it is dependent on the words that are produced by the sender ( Floyd and Guerrero,2006).

It is also important to note that non verbal communication differs from verbal communication in the sense that three quarters of communication that takes place is non verbal communication. This means that most of the messages that conveyed from the person are derived from the actions or non verbal communication cues. As the proverb says “Actions speak louder than words.”  In essence, this underscores the importance of non-verbal communication.  Non-verbal communication is especially significant in intercultural situations.

Therefore, non verbal communication is vital and it used in the traditional society in order to deliver information between two or more persons. For example non verbal communication enables the young ones to be able to understand or learn the right ways of behaving by observing the actions of the elders. This means that they are able to communicate through actions and which in turn allows them to imitate or practice

The general appearance and dress cord in traditional society is vital in the sense that diversity of cultures are concerned on how they look and make judgments based on looks and dress. For example it helps to understand a particular a person belongs.  Note that the way a person is dressed or appear determines the status of an individual (Anderson, 2007).

The body movements or kinesics such as gestures are important to communicate certain messages in the traditional set up or society. It is important to understand that the amount of gesturing varies from one culture to another. This means that the one acceptable in one culture may be offensive in another culture. This is used to communicate emotions or feelings or interest between two or persons (Remland,2009).For example some cultures consider pointing using fingers to be rude but some cultures have no problem with the use of fingers to communicate things. The facial expressions are also used in traditional society in order to communicate meanings with respect to smiling, crying or showing anger, sorrow or disgust. For example, in traditional society crying is mostly used during funeral to express someone’s loss or death of the person.

However, the intensity varies from culture to culture. Eye contact is another non verbal cue that is used in traditional society in the sense that it communicates or indicates attention or interest, influence attitude change or persuasion, regulates interaction, communicates emotion, defines power and status, and has a central role in managing impressions of other (Bull, 1987).                           For example, some cultures use eye contact as sign of truthfulness in a person and some cultures regard eye contact as a sign of lack of respect. This is common in some families or tribes in Zambia where the Son in law greeting the Mother in law without looking straight in the eye. In some villages the subjects are not allowed to talk to the chief using eye contact as a sign of respect.

In traditional society non verbal communication is also used to understand relationship that exists between groups of people or between two people. For example the gap or space or distance that exists between people communicates volumes to the type relationship among people. The space or distance between the uncle and a niece when talking may be different from the distance that exists between spouses (Floyd and Guerrero, 2006).The space of non verbal communication can also be used to determine the area or surrounding or land that is owned by a particular person. For example in some places land is regarded to be very important both for privacy and other important reasons. In the village setup there are certain things that are put to show the limits of a particular space that is owned by the people and no one is expected to invade the other person’s territory (Gudykunst, 1988).

The other importance of non verbal communication in the traditional society is that the fact that it enabled the people to be able to understand time. For example the people were able to know the time by looking at the movements of the Sun and Shadows as well as understanding seasons in a particular year. Through non verbal communication the elders where able to help the children learn various skills through observations and imitations.

In conclusion verbal communication is different from non verbal communication in the sense that it is mainly concerned with talking or speaking while the latter is concerned with the unspoken words but actions in order to deliver messages between parties. Non verbal is concerned with the use of gestures, eye contact, facial expressions and other observable actions to communicate. It is important in traditional society though it varies from one culture to another; it helps to convey messages such as emotions, interest and to determine relationships between two or more parties.

                                                              REFERENCES

Andersen, P. (2007). Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (2nd ed.) .London: Waveland Press.

Argyle, M. (1988). Bodily Communication (2nd ed.). Madison: International Universities Press.

Brehove, A. (2011). Knack Body Language: Techniques on Interpreting Nonverbal Cues in the World and Workplace. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press.

Bull, P. E. (1987). Posture and Gesture (Vol. 16). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

 Ezewu, E. (1983).Sociology of Education. Lagos: Singapore PTE Limited.

Floyd, K. &.Guerrero, L. K. (2006), Nonverbal Communication in close Relationships.  New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Gudykunst, W.B. (1988). Culture and Interpersonal Communication. California: Sage Publications Inc.

Hanna, J. L. (1987). To Dance Is Human: A Theory of Nonverbal Communication. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Hargie, O. & Dickson, D. (2004) Skilled Interpersonal Communication: Research, Theory and Practice. Hove:  Routledge.

Knapp, M. L., & Hall, J. A. (2007) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction (5th ed.) .Wadsworth: Thomas Learning.

Remland, M. S. (2009). Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

What is a Theory: Impontance of Theories

Sociology is vital in every community and society in the sense that it enables the understanding of various aspects such as the culture and the interaction of individuals and institutions and the cause and effect relationship of different events as well as theories that are vital in the processes of socialization that have been propounded by different scholars in different academic disciplines. Therefore, this essay will attempt to look at what is a theory and why are theories important as well as how the theories in socialization help to understand the processes at work in the lives of pupils and then will give a conclusion. It will begin by defining the key concepts such as theory and socialization.

The concept Socialization can be defined as the process of social interaction by which people acquire those behaviors essential for effective participation in the society, the process of becoming a social being(Davidson,1971). It is important to note that the concept is essential or necessary for the renewal of culture and the perpetuation of society. The individual and society are mutually dependent on socialization.

The concept theory refers to the explanation of why things happen the way they do or why things are like the way they are (Hornby, 2000).In other words it a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking or the results of such thinking. For example, the results may involve generalized explanations of things, or events in the society or in a particular environment operates. It is important understand that the concept has its roots in ancient Greek but in modern use it has acquired several different meanings.

Theories are vital and are used in various disciplines in order to help learners or scholars to be able to understand the contributions of various writers in different fields. For example, the theory of behaviorism in psychology is vital in the sense one is able to understand the behavior of individuals in the learning environment as well as in the society they operate from, the same applies to the theories in sociology will allow learners to be able to understand various aspects and nature of society( Davidson,1971).In disciplines such as counseling theories included by different scholars that enables the learners  to be able to understand how to deal with clients in the counseling process or session such as trait and factor theory and emotive rational theory as well as psychoanalysis theory are included in the disciplines to enhance the understanding and learning of various learners. This shows how important theories are in various disciplines such as sociology in the sense that they help to understand how things work and how the knowledge and skills can be used to improve the effectiveness of various fields. There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including the arts and sciences ( Watson,1974).  

Theories are also important in the sense that they are analytical tools for understanding and explaining as well as making predictions about events, situations or subject matter. For example, the learners are able to understand the essence or the importance of particular subject through the knowledge acquired from theories in order to explain the occurrence of various events and to discover the chances of the same event happening in the future. In the case of sociology one is able understand the behavior of people and explain as well as decide whether or not the same behavior will be repeated in the future (  Hawkins,1996).

The concept theory is important in the sense that it lays the foundation for insight in various situations or subject areas. This means that it enables one to have deeper understanding of issues such as those that are affecting people in the society or in the communities. This is possible because theories are usually focused on one particular issue and deals with the particular subject area in detail ( Davidson,1971).It is vital in the sense that it provides the basis at which people will be able to comprehend the materials and happenings in their lives.

They are important in the sense that they provide or explain the relationship between two or more variables. For example, it explains the relationship between the cause and effect relationship of different aspects such as marriage and divorce or illiteracy, poverty and development (Zima,2007). This means that through theories one is able to understand what leads to divorce in marriages such as those in Zambia and other developing countries. It is a set of formal ideas that seeks to explain reality or why things happen the way they do in the society. This is possible because it is an explanation of things or events of a particular subject area that is of importance to the learners or interested individuals.

Theories are also important in the sense that they are clear and are not so contradictable. This means that they are easily understood by various scholars or learners in particular fields. This implies that there specialization or focus on certain subject areas enables them not to be contradictable.

Theories are also important in the sense that they are comprehensive nature or in the way they are developed. For example, theories are vital in that they generate a lot of information that is relevant or necessary to explain events or subject matters and which are understandable. This means that theories covers a lot of information related to a particular subject matter and does not live out anything that is important (Davidson, 1971).

The other importance of theories is that they are explicit in nature and this brings about the aspect of precision in terms of data or information on a subject matter. This means that the fact that they are precise their wrongness and rightness can be tested.

They are also important in the sense that they are parsimonious in the way they are developed or established. This means that they are concerned with scientific principles that things are usually connected in the simplest or most economical way (Hawkins, 1996).                  

They are also important in the sense that they stimulate or generate research. This means through the theories people are able to develop the desire to conduct a research or developed other theirs that will be able to bridge the gaps in the previous theories conducted by other scholars. It is vital to understand that theories are developed or can be renewed because things in the society or the world constantly changing and this motivates various scholars to come with new theories that will be able to respond to various situations( Watson,1974).This implies that theories are important in the sense that they stimulate further research.

They are also vital in the sense that they help to summarize the body of knowledge in way that makes it easy for others to be able to understand. In other words theories compress a particular body of knowledge to enable learners to easily understand the essence of a particular subject area.

They are important in the sense that they help educators to be able explain and facilitate phenomenal in the case of behavior. This is vital in the teaching and learning environment or situations. This helps in the process of socialization as one will be able to understand the different kinds of behavior that is exhibited by the learners.

Theories on socialization help to understand the processes in the lives of pupils. For example, the  micro level socialization theories enables the educator to be able to help learners to learn through social conditioning and or observation. This is important in the sense that one learns conditional socialization by personal experiences, easily exhibited by the common emotion of fear. For example, if child fails learns feels embarrassed and as result learns to associate failure with embarrassment. Further the Observational socialization helps educators to be able to help learners learn by another individual's actions ( Watson,1974).

The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. This helps to understand the meaning of what is going on in the interactions of learners or pupils in the classroom situations.

In conclusions theories are vital in the sense that they help to explain various situations or develop insights in various disciplines. The theories of socialization are vital in the sense that help to understand the activities happening in the lives of children or the pupils and through the knowledge acquired from theories enables the learners or pupils to be assisted.

REFERENCES

Davidson Reynolds, Paul (1971). A Primer in Theory Construction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Hawking, S. (1996). "The Illustrated A Brief History of Time. New York: Bantam Books, p. 15.

Hornby, A.S. (2000).Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press

Matson, R (1972). Comparing Scientific Laws and Theories.  Kennesaw:  Kennesaw State University.

Zima, P. V. (2007). What is theory? Cultural theory as discourse and dialogue. London: Continuum . Tübingen: A. Franke Verlag.

Human Resource Development

The development of every nation is vital and for development to be successively achieved it requires the development of human beings and education is used as the instrument to bring about this development especially in countries that are less developed. This was need for most African countries that attained independence in the post colonial period. Therefore, this essay endeavors to look at what led to the need for human resource development in Zambia in the mid 1960s and will highlight the perceptions of human resource development in this period and the strategies used in the exercise and then will give conclusion. Firstly the essay will define the key terms such as strategies, resource, and development.

The concept strategy refers to a plan of action designed or intended to achieve a particular goal or long term aim (Hornby, 2000).

The concept resource refers to anything that is of value to human beings such as money, materials, people and other substances that useful. It is important to note that human beings are the most important among all the resources in the sense that they have the ability to change other resources into something of value.

Todaro and Smith (2003:51) defines development as “a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty”. ”. In other words development refers to be the process for enlarging the people choices which primarily reflect the desire to lead a long and health life, acquire basic knowledge and access to resources that are essential for an improved standard of living.

It is important to note that most countries in Africa were not ready or prepared for independence and Zambia is one of the countries that were in this state and its facilities for education were limited in supply. This was due to the fact that education to a large extent was neglected or cut off from the main sources of Zambia’s wealth such as the revenue coming from the copper and opportunities for apprenticeship, on job training and other educational activities to develop manpower in the country were hindered due to racial discrimination and this increased dependency syndrome (Mwanakatwe, 1974).This resulted into a situation where Zambia was found to be in a state where it was less prepared for independence as it lacked manpower.

For example at independence Zambia was coming from the period of the federation were experts from other countries were in control or heading most of the departments or positions in all the areas of work of life. The achievement of independence in the country meant that there was a shift of governments and this created vacancies in almost all the positions of the governments and other sectors and this created the need for human resource development (Carmody, 2004).                                In other words the skilled manpower in sectors or fields such as commerce, politics, industries, administration and agricultural were forced to go back to their countries and this affected the country in the sense that it created a shortage of manpower. For example, at independence Zambia needed approximately four thousand and fifteen thousand skilled and well educated manpower that will be able to replace the foreign workers who had left the country and occupy the positions in the government (Mwanakatwe, 1974).

There was also the need for human resource development in the country because there was an increase in the number of unskilled labour and these were seeking paid emplyment.This was a challenge in the sense that it was difficult to bring about national development in the country because they were few or shortage of people with relevant skills such as managerial, technological and financial skills to enhance developmental activities (Kelly, 1999).This was partly due to the fact that the most of the people did not have access to technology and this was a constraint to national development. Also economic development was also dependent on the skills or manpower of the people in less developed countries.

There was also inadequate infrastructure necessary to develop human resource or manpower in the country. This was due to the fact that education was not given a priority prior to independence and there was a need to construct more primary schools, secondary school and a university in order to develop human resource. This created the need for human resource development in Zambia. The geographical location of schools was also another problem that led to the need for human resource development and there was a need for the expansion of schools throughout the country in order to increase manpower(Carmody,2004).

Also when UNIP government came into power was also faced with a challenge which at the time was inadequate or insufficient financial resources that were needed for the provision of the desired social services such schools, clinics, hospital, supply of skilled and educated manpower which was to promote and enhance the rapid economic development (MOE, 1992).                              It is a well known fact that at independence in Zambia there was only 100 graduates and 1000 school levers which was not enough to drive the economy. There was also an urgent need for development of manpower so as to decolonize and Zambianize the civil society in the country. Independence and nationhood mean little if the reins of government are not taken up by the local people (UNESCO, 1961).This was to be addressed by the government if the country was to develop politically and economically.

Over dependency on foreign experts also led to the need for human resource development in Zambia. This was because the experts who came to work in Zambia in various fields such as education, health, administration and agriculture demanded a lot of money and it was expensive for the government to meet their needs due to lack of financial resources. So there was a need to train and empower local people with skills that will be able to bridge the gap in the nation and to replace the outgoing professionals.Carmody (2004) adds that it was important as it enabled them to overcome the extreme dependency on expatriate manpower at most levels of skilled employment in Government and in the private sector. There was also rapid population, increased unemployment in formal wage sectors, absence of entrepreneurs and self made citizens, lack of qualified teachers and those who seemed to have some potential in the education sector each teacher was required to have two classes in a day and this made teaching more complicated and quality of education was compromised.

 Gender disparities in education was among the reasons why there was a need for human resource development as most girls and women were neglected as people who could contribute positively to national development (Mwanakatwe, 1974).In other words the education system prior to independence was one that favored men than women and girls in the society because females were considered to be slaves and there was a need to remove this mentality and empower both men and women.

Therefore human resource development in the 1960s was perceived as a powerful instrument that will be able to equip and empower people in the Zambia with different and relevant skills and knowledge that are necessary for socio economic development. These skills included the managerial, technological and administrative skills that will be able to facilitate economic development. It was considered to be the best way of addressing the challenges that were affecting development in the country and education was taken as the key to bring about the human resource development. This is because before education in Zambia was considered to be the education for the elite or upper class or the whites. This means that education which was given the Africans was somewhat inferior to the one given to the whites. This enabled the Europeans to get white collar jobs that were better than the jobs the Africans got. This perception was changed in the 1960s through the introduction of higher education services in order to develop human resource. Human resource development was perceived to be a powerful tool and relevant which led to the development of human capital theory movement to enhance economic growth and that there was a need for the government to invest in education. Kelly (1999) explains that education had to be geared towards the manpower required for the economic growth of society, human beings were to be made productive and education was considered as the vital instrument for gearing development towards the economic needs of society.

Therefore the strategies were employed or used in this exercise of achieving human resource development in Zambia. For example the government provided several secondary and primary schools throughout the country in order to meet the desired needs of society. Within the few years after independence 100 secondary schools were opened  and approximately 54,000 students were enrolled and this was important as it provided the teacher that were needed for the rapid growing primary school system(Mwanakatwe,1974).They also constructed and opened the university of Zambia in 1966 which will be able respond to high productivity in the country. This was to be achieved through the schools at the university such as education, humanities, law, medicine, agriculture, mining industry and the extramural department which was established within the same years. There was also an introduction of the technical and vocational skills such as TEVETA which was relevant to provide the much needed skills in the country and more girl child education were also introduced to enable females acquire basic learning.

In conclusion, human resource development during the 1960s played an important role in Zambia and it was achieved through education system. It enabled the state to focus on the areas that will be able to develop the country through empowering the local people to replace the foreign experts. Zambia has now progressed towards self reliance in material wealth and human skills. This means that the country has greatly improved in the sense that the citizens are now pre dominating in the civil service and parastatal organization and there is now an increase in the primary and secondary schools as well as the number of teachers and students who are graduating at the University of Zambia. The economy has also greatly improved or substantially diversified and the country is able to produce much than what it used to import. Therefore dependency on foreign experts has been reduced due to human resource development in the country.

                                                         REFERENCES

Carmody, B. (2004).The Evolution of Education in Zambia.

                                 Ndola: Mission Press.

Hornby, A.S. (2000).Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.

                                  London: Oxford University Press. 

Kelly, M.J. (1999).The Origins and Development of Education in Zambia:

                               Pre Colonial Times to 1996.Lusaka: Image Publishers Ltd.

Mwanakatwe, J.M. (1968).The Growth of Education in Zambia since Independence.

                                          Lusaka: Oxford University Press.

Ministry of Education (1992).Focus on Learning: Strategies for the Development of

                                                School Education in Zambia. Lusaka: MOE.

Todaro, M.P. &.Smith, S.C. (2003).Economic Development.

                                                         New Delhi: Pearson Education Ltd.

UNESCO. (1961).Final Report: Conference of African States on Development

                              Of Education in Africa. Paris: UNESCO.

Human Resource Development

The development of every nation is vital and for development to be successively achieved it requires the development of human beings and education is used as the instrument to bring about this development especially in countries that are less developed. This was need for most African countries that attained independence in the post colonial period. Therefore, this essay endeavors to look at what led to the need for human resource development in Zambia in the mid 1960s and will highlight the perceptions of human resource development in this period and the strategies used in the exercise and then will give conclusion. Firstly the essay will define the key terms such as strategies, resource, and development.

The concept strategy refers to a plan of action designed or intended to achieve a particular goal or long term aim (Hornby, 2000).

The concept resource refers to anything that is of value to human beings such as money, materials, people and other substances that useful. It is important to note that human beings are the most important among all the resources in the sense that they have the ability to change other resources into something of value.

Todaro and Smith (2003:51) defines development as “a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty”. ”. In other words development refers to be the process for enlarging the people choices which primarily reflect the desire to lead a long and health life, acquire basic knowledge and access to resources that are essential for an improved standard of living.

It is important to note that most countries in Africa were not ready or prepared for independence and Zambia is one of the countries that were in this state and its facilities for education were limited in supply. This was due to the fact that education to a large extent was neglected or cut off from the main sources of Zambia’s wealth such as the revenue coming from the copper and opportunities for apprenticeship, on job training and other educational activities to develop manpower in the country were hindered due to racial discrimination and this increased dependency syndrome (Mwanakatwe, 1974).This resulted into a situation where Zambia was found to be in a state where it was less prepared for independence as it lacked manpower.

For example at independence Zambia was coming from the period of the federation were experts from other countries were in control or heading most of the departments or positions in all the areas of work of life. The achievement of independence in the country meant that there was a shift of governments and this created vacancies in almost all the positions of the governments and other sectors and this created the need for human resource development (Carmody, 2004).                                In other words the skilled manpower in sectors or fields such as commerce, politics, industries, administration and agricultural were forced to go back to their countries and this affected the country in the sense that it created a shortage of manpower. For example, at independence Zambia needed approximately four thousand and fifteen thousand skilled and well educated manpower that will be able to replace the foreign workers who had left the country and occupy the positions in the government (Mwanakatwe, 1974).

There was also the need for human resource development in the country because there was an increase in the number of unskilled labour and these were seeking paid emplyment.This was a challenge in the sense that it was difficult to bring about national development in the country because they were few or shortage of people with relevant skills such as managerial, technological and financial skills to enhance developmental activities (Kelly, 1999).This was partly due to the fact that the most of the people did not have access to technology and this was a constraint to national development. Also economic development was also dependent on the skills or manpower of the people in less developed countries.

There was also inadequate infrastructure necessary to develop human resource or manpower in the country. This was due to the fact that education was not given a priority prior to independence and there was a need to construct more primary schools, secondary school and a university in order to develop human resource. This created the need for human resource development in Zambia. The geographical location of schools was also another problem that led to the need for human resource development and there was a need for the expansion of schools throughout the country in order to increase manpower(Carmody,2004).

Also when UNIP government came into power was also faced with a challenge which at the time was inadequate or insufficient financial resources that were needed for the provision of the desired social services such schools, clinics, hospital, supply of skilled and educated manpower which was to promote and enhance the rapid economic development (MOE, 1992).                              It is a well known fact that at independence in Zambia there was only 100 graduates and 1000 school levers which was not enough to drive the economy. There was also an urgent need for development of manpower so as to decolonize and Zambianize the civil society in the country. Independence and nationhood mean little if the reins of government are not taken up by the local people (UNESCO, 1961).This was to be addressed by the government if the country was to develop politically and economically.

Over dependency on foreign experts also led to the need for human resource development in Zambia. This was because the experts who came to work in Zambia in various fields such as education, health, administration and agriculture demanded a lot of money and it was expensive for the government to meet their needs due to lack of financial resources. So there was a need to train and empower local people with skills that will be able to bridge the gap in the nation and to replace the outgoing professionals.Carmody (2004) adds that it was important as it enabled them to overcome the extreme dependency on expatriate manpower at most levels of skilled employment in Government and in the private sector. There was also rapid population, increased unemployment in formal wage sectors, absence of entrepreneurs and self made citizens, lack of qualified teachers and those who seemed to have some potential in the education sector each teacher was required to have two classes in a day and this made teaching more complicated and quality of education was compromised.

 Gender disparities in education was among the reasons why there was a need for human resource development as most girls and women were neglected as people who could contribute positively to national development (Mwanakatwe, 1974).In other words the education system prior to independence was one that favored men than women and girls in the society because females were considered to be slaves and there was a need to remove this mentality and empower both men and women.

Therefore human resource development in the 1960s was perceived as a powerful instrument that will be able to equip and empower people in the Zambia with different and relevant skills and knowledge that are necessary for socio economic development. These skills included the managerial, technological and administrative skills that will be able to facilitate economic development. It was considered to be the best way of addressing the challenges that were affecting development in the country and education was taken as the key to bring about the human resource development. This is because before education in Zambia was considered to be the education for the elite or upper class or the whites. This means that education which was given the Africans was somewhat inferior to the one given to the whites. This enabled the Europeans to get white collar jobs that were better than the jobs the Africans got. This perception was changed in the 1960s through the introduction of higher education services in order to develop human resource. Human resource development was perceived to be a powerful tool and relevant which led to the development of human capital theory movement to enhance economic growth and that there was a need for the government to invest in education. Kelly (1999) explains that education had to be geared towards the manpower required for the economic growth of society, human beings were to be made productive and education was considered as the vital instrument for gearing development towards the economic needs of society.

Therefore the strategies were employed or used in this exercise of achieving human resource development in Zambia. For example the government provided several secondary and primary schools throughout the country in order to meet the desired needs of society. Within the few years after independence 100 secondary schools were opened  and approximately 54,000 students were enrolled and this was important as it provided the teacher that were needed for the rapid growing primary school system(Mwanakatwe,1974).They also constructed and opened the university of Zambia in 1966 which will be able respond to high productivity in the country. This was to be achieved through the schools at the university such as education, humanities, law, medicine, agriculture, mining industry and the extramural department which was established within the same years. There was also an introduction of the technical and vocational skills such as TEVETA which was relevant to provide the much needed skills in the country and more girl child education were also introduced to enable females acquire basic learning.

In conclusion, human resource development during the 1960s played an important role in Zambia and it was achieved through education system. It enabled the state to focus on the areas that will be able to develop the country through empowering the local people to replace the foreign experts. Zambia has now progressed towards self reliance in material wealth and human skills. This means that the country has greatly improved in the sense that the citizens are now pre dominating in the civil service and parastatal organization and there is now an increase in the primary and secondary schools as well as the number of teachers and students who are graduating at the University of Zambia. The economy has also greatly improved or substantially diversified and the country is able to produce much than what it used to import. Therefore dependency on foreign experts has been reduced due to human resource development in the country.

                                                         REFERENCES

Carmody, B. (2004).The Evolution of Education in Zambia.

                                 Ndola: Mission Press.

Hornby, A.S. (2000).Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.

                                  London: Oxford University Press. 

Kelly, M.J. (1999).The Origins and Development of Education in Zambia:

                               Pre Colonial Times to 1996.Lusaka: Image Publishers Ltd.

Mwanakatwe, J.M. (1968).The Growth of Education in Zambia since Independence.

                                          Lusaka: Oxford University Press.

Ministry of Education (1992).Focus on Learning: Strategies for the Development of

                                                School Education in Zambia. Lusaka: MOE.

Todaro, M.P. &.Smith, S.C. (2003).Economic Development.

                                                         New Delhi: Pearson Education Ltd.

UNESCO. (1961).Final Report: Conference of African States on Development

                              Of Education in Africa. Paris: UNESCO.

Debt Crisis and its inpact on development and administration of education in zambia

The external debt for many years now has deprived the less developed countries like Zambia to invest in its people in a way that is essential and necessary for accelerated poverty reduction. Many poor countries have been trapped in a debt overhang that has been blocking national development. Therefore this essay will attempt to critically discuss the origins of debt and its effect on the development and administration of education in Zambia and what measures should the government put in place in order to lighten this burden and then conclusion. Firstly it will define the key concepts such as education, administration and development.

According to Kelly (1999:2) defines education as an “organized and sustained communication process designed to bring about learning”.

The concept administration refers to the organization and running of a particular system such as the education system (Hornby, 2000).

Todaro and Smith (2003:51) defines development as “a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty”.

The origins of debt can be traced back from the time Zambia became independent. Upon independence in the 1964 October the new government in Zambia was faced with a daunting task. This was due to the fact that popular expectations were very high, fuelled by nationalist enthusiasm and the pledge by the government to correct the glaring imbalances and inequities created by colonial rule ( UNDP,2005).The government was influenced by the ideology of state socialism which aimed at attaining political and economic independence from the western industrial countries. It contrasted sharply with the reality of heavy dependence on expatriate technical skills and external financial assistance. It is important to understand that Zambia had the highest per capita income at independence because copper dominated the economy at the time (JCTR, 2001).The few years after independence Copper was regarded as the vehicle to development and modernization and this enabled the government to take control and ownership over all the sectors and nationalized substantial part of the manufacturing sector, public utilities, and key elements of transport and communication.

Therefore there are certain challenges that led to the country start borrowing from institutions such as IMF and World Bank and this act resulted in the heavy indebtedness in Zambia. For example the increase in the oil prices affected the copper prices and this led to the excessive borrowing. UNDP (2005:68) argues that “the major and compounding factor contributing to the increase in Zambia’s external debt was the world oil shock between 1973 and 1979 which led to frequent regional and global recessions, and increase in the interest rates at the international and capital markets, accumulation in arrears falling due while copper prices continued with a downward spiral”.

The other source of Zambia’s heavy indebtedness can be classified as a political factor which occurred during the late 1970s and early 1980s.For example Zambia during the same period participated by actively supporting liberation struggles such as those by ANC in south Africa and the ZAPU-PF in Zimbabwe that were waging war against the racist regimes in the southern regions and this enabled the country to incur a total debt of US$5.3 billion in opposing the apartheid system of government(JCTR,2000).This not only did it bring increase in debt but also led to human loss, and physical damage of the infrastructure.

Zambia’s heavily indebtedness was also as a result of both domestic policy findings and exogenous factors that were beyond government control. It is also important to understand that Zambia borrowed excessively for development purposes during the 1970s and 1980s but some of the borrowing was wasted or was not used properly for instance projects such as the Chipata Muchinji rail that never even took off. Henriot (1996) argues that between 1970 and1974 the debt in Zambia was at US$776 million while for the period between 1980 and 1984 it stood at US$3629 million representing an increase in percentage.

The debt continued to increase even the 1990s but the country had challenges in terms of balancing debt servicing and financing social services or infrastructure development in the country. Due to the failure by most impoverished countries to pay back the debts they are forced to concentrate on servicing the debts by cutting down expenditures, job loss, privatization of parastatals and wage freeze rather than concentrating on investing in the well being of the citizens and this is economically expensive and morally wrong(Kelly,1998).

This debt crisis in Zambia has an effect on the social sector especially the education system in the country. This means that the high debt that is upon a less developed country like Zambia has serious effects on the social and economic development of the country. For example, Prior to 2004 Zambia’s debt had reached US$7.1 billion and the country was spending a lot of money towards debt servicing rather than on social sectors such as the education, health and infrastructure development (Henriot, 1996).This means that a lot of resources were being channeled into debt servicing rather than in providing for the needs of the people in the country and this has limited the development of education in the country. This enables schools to be in a poor state and increase in the poverty levels in the country.

The debt has also affected the country to develop and to provide proper administration of the educational activities or the education sector (Carmody, 2004). This was because the country was choking by the burden of debt and there is no way the country could fight high poverty levels and develop the social sector such as the education system under the status of high indebtedness. This affects the provision of quality education through supplying materials, equipment and the infrastructure needed for effective delivery of instructional and educational services. This is because if the less developed country like Zambia is in a debt crisis it is difficult for it to raise adequate revenue to service its debt and at the same time to finance the developmental activities in the education sector (Kelly, 1991).

Also the conditionalities that come with aid from donors such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have an effect on the development and administration of the education system in Zambia. For example the SAPs come with certain conditions such as the wage freeze of the workers like teachers in the various schools, and public restructuring which leads to most people experiencing retrenchments or no jobs to accommodate the much needed teachers or human resource in the education sector to provide effective services (Kelly, 1999).

Therefore debt and debt servicing is the major factor that affects the development and administration of education in Zambia. This means that debt servicing is the obstacle to the development of education in the country. The government needs to come with certain measures in order to lighten the burden of debt which is affecting the national development. For example the government must come up with a comprehensive law on debt contraction that gives the parliament the powers to oversee and approve all loans to be contracted on behalf of the Zambia people by debating, scrutinizing and approving instead of the minister belonging to the ministry of finance alone (JCTR,2001).This is important in the sense that it will enable the process to be more consultative, transparent and accountable rather than it being individualistic and impulsive and the conditionalities that come with aid must be debated upon before accepting them. This will be able to allow the country to know the purpose of each loan and its effects on the social sector such as the education and health.

The other thing that the government supposed to do is that it must find alternative means of getting financial resources within the country to meet the expected budget plan, development programmes such as poverty alleviation, infrastructure development of schools and other public services which will be able to enable the government to operate and provide key services more effectively. In order to do this the government must be able to find ways of improving and increasing revenue base as an alternative to borrowing (UNDP, 1996).                         

Alternatively the government must only accept grants rather than loans which attract high interest rates or converting the existing loans into grants to lighten the burden. The other thing that they should do is to meet first the needs of the people before the needs of the creditors are met and also the user fees in the schools and health should be abolished to enable increase in the enrollment of learners. The government must also prioritize the two fundamental concerns such as the education and health sector (Henriot, 1996).This means that it must show genuine committement to social development of education and health which are very important. There must also be a political will for debt cancellation and avoidance of further debt or come up with a proper debt mechanism which will be able to ensure that debt relief resources are used for the benefit of people in Zambia.

In conclusion debt is a major barrier to development of the social sectors in most less developed countries. This is because the money that is supposed to go to development and proper administration of the education system in Zambia is channeled to debt servicing. The government must concentrate on the needs of the people first before meeting the needs of the lenders to ensure effective delivery of education. Must avoid over reliance on foreign aid and try to depend on the local resource to raise revenue for development.

                                                     REFERENCE

Carmody, B. (2004).The Evolution of Education in Zambia.

                                 Ndola: Mission Press.

Henroit, P.J. (1996).Zambia: A Case Study of Economic Reform and Impact on the Poor.

                                Lusaka: Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection.

Hornby, A.S. (2000).Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.

                                  London: Oxford University Press. 

JCTR. (2000).Apartheid Caused Debt: The Case of Zambia.

                    Lusaka: Bank of Zambia.

JCTR. (2001).Social and Economic Implications of HIPC in Zambia.

                      Lusaka: Oxfam Zambia/World Development Report.

Kelly, M.J. (1991).Education in a Declining Economy.

                            Washington, DC: The World Bank.

Kelly, M.J. (1998).Education in an Economy Undergoing Structural Adjustment:

                          The Case of Zambia. Cape Town: World Council of Education Society.

Todaro, M.P. &.Smith, S.C. (2003).Economic Development.

                                                         New Delhi: Pearson Education Ltd.

UNDP. (2005).Economic Policies: For Growth, Employment and Poverty Reduction.

                       Lusaka: UNDP.

UNDP. (1996).Prospects for Sustainable Human Development in Zambia:

                        More Choices for our People. Lusaka: GRZ/UNDP.